O God, Trinity of love, from the profound communion of your divine life, pour out upon us a torrent of fraternal love. Grant us the love reflected in the actions of Jesus, in his family of Nazareth, and in the early Christian community.
ZnO NPs are of great interest because their synthesis is economical, safe and easy [72]. Vijayakumar et al. (2018) investigated the antimicrobial and antifungal effect of spherical ZnO NPs (30 nm) that were successfully synthesized using Atalantia monofila leaf extract [90]. The bactericidal effect against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria was evaluated and the highest inhibition values were obtained for B. subtilis (inhibition zone diameter of 20 mm) and K. pneumoniae (inhibition zone diameter of 19 mm). On the other hand, the maximum inhibition zones for fungi were observed against C. albicans (inhibition zone diameter of 24 mm) followed by A. niger (inhibition zone diameter of 18 mm).
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Over the last years, the replacement of plants by other biological samples, mainly bacteria and fungi, has increased. The antimicrobial activity of CuO NPs obtained from an Actinomycete bacteria in a copper sulfate aqueous solution was tested against a few pathogenic bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Proteus mirabilis, Edwardsiella tard, Aeromonas caviae, Aeromonas hydrophila and Vibrio anguillarum. The results showed that the highest zone of inhibition was obtained for B. cereus (inhibition zone diameter of 25.3 mm), followed by E. tard (inhibition zone diameter of 22.6 mm), at a concentration of 100 µg/mL [91]. However, the synthesis of NPs using bacteria has several disadvantages, such as the high cost of culture media, the need for microbial screening, long process time, microbial contamination, and lack of control over the morphological characteristics. Due to these disadvantages, the attention towards using fungi to synthesize NPs has increased, and even common food-contaminating fungi, such as white rot fungi, are being considered. Studies have shown that the antimicrobial properties are dependent on the type of fungus used. Gudikandula et al. (2017) successfully obtained spherical and well-dispersed Ag NPs by using two different fungal strains (Ganoderma enigmaticum and Trametes ljubarskyi) and silver nitrate [92]. The generated NPs presented a size range varying between 15 and 25 nm and their antimicrobial activity was evaluated against eight pathogenic bacteria. Ag NPs obtained from G. enigmaticum fungi showed the greatest inhibition zone against Staphylococcus (KUCC 7) and P. putida (KUCCC 12) with an average diameter of 28 mm, while Ag NPs synthetized from T. ljubarskyi fungi had the highest inhibition zone against B. subtilis (MTCC 441) and P. putida (KUCCC 12) with an average diameter of 28 nm.
A standardized methodology in which the measurements of the inhibition zone diameter can be correlated with the minimum inhibitory concentrations of the antimicrobial agents needs to be used in order to obtain reliable results. Thus, specific culture media, various incubation conditions, and interpretive criteria for the inhibition zones are used. As a result, approximate MIC values can be obtained; however, this method cannot distinguish between bactericidal or bacteriostatic effects [146]. The agar diffusion method can also be modified depending on the research study. For example, in order to study the antibacterial activity of Ag NPs (synthesized by using the Papaya carica latex extract as the reducing agent) against different pathogenic bacteria, such as Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Proteus mirabilis the agar diffusion method was specifically modified. The modifications included substituting the filter paper disks for wells made in the Petri dish agar which were filled with different concentrations of Ag NPs. After the incubation period, the inhibition zones were measured. This alternative is generally called the agar well diffusion method. The MIC values of Ag NPs against each bacteria were reported and their highest antibacterial effect was against Gram-negative bacteria [10]. A second widely used method to measure antimicrobial activity is the agar (or broth) dilution method. This method consists of preparing a series of plates (or tubes) containing a standardized suspension of the microorganism to be tested into agar (or broth medium), containing various concentrations of the antimicrobial agents (Figure 3).
As Hayama passes Izuki, he notices Kuroko who suddenly appears before him. By observing Hayama, Kuroko noticed that Hayama's dribbling hand is under a large amount of stress and that when he turns there's a moment of rigidity. Hayama tells Kuroko that he was expecting him to pull of something like this, and suddenly passes him. Izuki appears, using his Eagle Spear to try and steal the ball again. However, due to his speed, Hayama dodges. The players on the Seirin bench are surprised as Hayama even evaded in his blind spot. Izuki asks Hayama if this is really all right, since he has entered the no trespassing zone of a beast. Hayama is surprised when suddenly Kagami appears blocking his shot.[57] Seirin stopped Rakuzan's offence and now it is time for Seirin's counterattack. 2ff7e9595c
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